From a77057f5b0d273e92d5f988913e730667414206b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: =?UTF-8?q?Sebasti=C3=A1n=20Ram=C3=ADrez?= <tiangolo@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 11 Mar 2020 12:13:50 +0100
Subject: [PATCH] :memo: Add docs about alternatives and inspiration (#62)

---
 docs/alternatives.md | 417 ++++---------------------------------------
 1 file changed, 36 insertions(+), 381 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/alternatives.md b/docs/alternatives.md
index 96aa552..7a4bd98 100644
--- a/docs/alternatives.md
+++ b/docs/alternatives.md
@@ -1,417 +1,72 @@
 What inspired **Typer**, how it compares to other alternatives and what it learned from them.
 
-Coming soon...
+## Intro
 
-<!-- ## Intro
-
-**FastAPI** wouldn't exist if not for the previous work of others.
+**Typer** wouldn't exist if not for the previous work of others.
 
 There have been many tools created before that have helped inspire its creation.
 
-I have been avoiding the creation of a new framework for several years. First I tried to solve all the features covered by **FastAPI** using many different frameworks, plug-ins, and tools.
-
-But at some point, there was no other option than creating something that provided all these features, taking the best ideas from previous tools, and combining them in the best way possible, using language features that weren't even available before (Python 3.6+ type hints).
-
 ## Previous tools
 
-### <a href="https://www.djangoproject.com/" target="_blank">Django</a>
+### <a href="https://docs.python.org/3/library/argparse.html" class="external-link" target="_blank">`argparse`</a>
 
-It's the most popular Python framework and is widely trusted. It is used to build systems like Instagram.
+`argparse` is the Python standard library's module to write CLIs.
 
-It's relatively tightly coupled with relational databases (like MySQL or PostgreSQL), so, having a NoSQL database (like Couchbase, MongoDB, Cassandra, etc) as the main store engine is not very easy.
+It provides a better alternative than reading the *CLI Parameters* as a `list` of `str` and parsing everything by hand.
 
-It was created to generate the HTML in the backend, not to create APIs used by a modern frontend (like React, Vue.js and Angular) or by other systems (like <abbr title="Internet of Things">IoT</abbr> devices) communicating with it.
+!!! check "Inspired **Typer** to"
+    Provide a better development experience than just reading *CLI Parameters* by hand.
 
-### <a href="https://www.django-rest-framework.org/" target="_blank">Django REST Framework</a>
+### <a href="https://www.hug.rest/" class="external-link" target="_blank">Hug</a>
 
-Django REST framework was created to be a flexible toolkit for building Web APIs using Django underneath, to improve its API capabilities.
+Hug is a library to create APIs and CLIs, it uses parameters in functions to declare the required data.
 
-It is used by many companies including Mozilla, Red Hat and Eventbrite.
+It inspired a lot of the ideas in **FastAPI** and **Typer**.
 
-It was one of the first examples of **automatic API documentation**, and this was specifically one of the first ideas that inspired "the search for" **FastAPI**.
+!!! check "Inspired **Typer** to"
+    Use function parameters to declare *CLI Arguments* and *CLI Options* as it simplifies a lot the development experience.
 
-!!! note
-    Django REST Framework was created by Tom Christie. The same creator of Starlette and Uvicorn, on which **FastAPI** is based.
+### <a href="https://micheles.github.io/plac/" class="external-link" target="_blank">Plac</a>
 
+Plac is another library to create CLIs using parameters in functions, similar to Hug.
 
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Have an automatic API documentation web user interface.
+!!! check "Inspired **Typer** to"
+    Provide a simple way to use a function as a command line app, without having to create a complete app, with `typer.run(some_function)`.
 
-### <a href="http://flask.pocoo.org/" target="_blank">Flask</a>
+### <a href="https://pydantic-docs.helpmanual.io/" class="external-link" target="_blank">Pydantic</a>
 
-Flask is a "microframework", it doesn't include database integrations nor many of the things that come by default in Django.
+Pydantic is a library to handle data validation using standard modern Python type annotations.
 
-This simplicity and flexibility allow doing things like using NoSQL databases as the main data storage system.
+It powers **FastAPI** underneath.
 
-As it is very simple, it's relatively intuitive to learn, although the documentation gets somewhat technical at some points.
+It is not used by **Typer**, but it inspired a lot of the design (through **FastAPI**).
 
-It is also commonly used for other applications that don't necessarily need a database, user management, or any of the many features that come pre-built in Django. Although many of these features can be added with plug-ins.
+!!! check "Inspired **Typer** to"
+    Use standard Python type annotations to declare types instead of library-specific types or classes and use them for data validation and documentation.
 
-This decoupling of parts, and being a "microframework" that could be extended to cover exactly what is needed was a key feature that I wanted to keep.
+### <a href="https://click.palletsprojects.com" class="external-link" target="_blank">Click</a>
 
-Given the simplicity of Flask, it seemed like a good match for building APIs. The next thing to find was a "Django REST Framework" for Flask.
+Click is one of the most widely used libraries to create CLIs in Python.
 
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Be a micro-framework. Making it easy to mix and match the tools and parts needed.
+It's a very powerful tool and there are many CLIs built with it. It is what powers **Typer** underneath.
 
-    Have a simple and easy to use routing system.
+It also uses functions with parameters for *CLI Arguments* and *CLI Options*, but the declaration of the specific *CLI Arguments*, *CLI Options*, types, etc, is done in decorators on top of the function. This requires some code repetition (e.g. a *CLI Option* name `--verbose` and a variable name `verbose`) and synchronization between two places related to the same information (the decorator and the parameter function).
 
+It uses decorators on top of functions to modify the actual value of those functions, converting them to instances of a specific class. This is a clever trick, but code editors can't provide great support for autocompletion that way.
 
-### <a href="http://docs.python-requests.org" target="_blank">Requests</a>
+It was built with some great ideas and design using the features available in the language at the time (Python 2.x).
 
-**FastAPI** is not actually an alternative to **Requests**. Their scope is very different.
+!!! check "**Typer** uses it for"
+    Everything. 🚀
 
-It would actually be common to use Requests *inside* of a FastAPI application.
+    **Typer** mainly adds a layer on top of Click, making the code simpler and easier to use, with autocompletion everywhere, etc, but providing all the powerful features of Click underneath.
 
-But still, FastAPI got quite some inspiration from Requests.
+    As someone pointed out: <em><a href="https://twitter.com/fishnets88/status/1210126833745838080" class="external-link" target="_blank">"Nice to see it is built on Click but adds the type stuff. Me gusta!"</a></em>
 
-**Requests** is a library to *interact* with APIs (as a client), while **FastAPI** is a library to *build* APIs (as a server).
+### <a href="https://fastapi.tiangolo.com/" class="external-link" target="_blank">FastAPI</a>
 
-They are, more or less, at opposite ends, complementing each other.
+I created **FastAPI** to provide an easy way to build APIs with autocompletion for everything in the code (and some other <a href="https://fastapi.tiangolo.com/features/" class="external-link" target="_blank">features</a>).
 
-Requests has a very simple and intuitive design, it's very easy to use, with sensible defaults. But at the same time, it's very powerful and customizable.
+**Typer** is the "FastAPI of CLIs".
 
-That's why, as said in the official website:
-
-> Requests is one of the most downloaded Python packages of all time
-
-The way you use it is very simple. For example, to do a `GET` request, you would write:
-
-```Python
-response = requests.get("http://example.com/some/url")
-```
-
-The FastAPI counterpart API path operation could look like:
-
-```Python hl_lines="1"
-@app.get("/some/url")
-def read_url():
-    return {"message": "Hello World"}
-```
-
-See the similarities in `requests.get(...)` and `@app.get(...)`.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    * Have a simple and intuitive API.
-    * Use HTTP method names (operations) directly, in a straightforward and intuitive way.
-    * Have sensible defaults, but powerful customizations.
-
-
-### <a href="https://swagger.io/" target="_blank">Swagger</a> / <a href="https://github.com/OAI/OpenAPI-Specification/" target="_blank">OpenAPI</a>
-
-The main feature I wanted from Django REST Framework was the automatic API documentation.
-
-Then I found that there was a standard to document APIs, using JSON (or YAML, an extension of JSON) called Swagger.
-
-And there was a web user interface for Swagger APIs already created. So, being able to generate Swagger documentation for an API would allow using this web user interface automatically.
-
-At some point, Swagger was given to the Linux Foundation, to be renamed OpenAPI.
-
-That's why when talking about version 2.0 it's common to say "Swagger", and for version 3+ "OpenAPI".
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Adopt and use an open standard for API specifications, instead of a custom schema.
-
-    And integrate standards-based user interface tools:
-
-    * <a href="https://github.com/swagger-api/swagger-ui" target="_blank">Swagger UI</a>
-    * <a href="https://github.com/Rebilly/ReDoc" target="_blank">ReDoc</a>
-
-    These two were chosen for being fairly popular and stable, but doing a quick search, you could find dozens of additional alternative user interfaces for OpenAPI (that you can use with **FastAPI**).
-
-### Flask REST frameworks
-
-There are several Flask REST frameworks, but after investing the time and work into investigating them, I found that many are discontinued or abandoned, with several standing issues that made them unfit.
-
-### <a href="https://marshmallow.readthedocs.io/en/3.0/" target="_blank">Marshmallow</a>
-
-One of the main features needed by API systems is data "<abbr title="also called marshalling, conversion">serialization</abbr>" which is taking data from the code (Python) and converting it into something that can be sent through the network. For example, converting an object containing data from a database into a JSON object. Converting `datetime` objects into strings, etc.
-
-Another big feature needed by APIs is data validation, making sure that the data is valid, given certain parameters. For example, that some field is an `int`, and not some random string. This is especially useful for incoming data.
-
-Without a data validation system, you would have to do all the checks by hand, in code.
-
-These features are what Marshmallow was built to provide. It is a great library, and I have used it a lot before.
-
-But it was created before there existed Python type hints. So, to define every <abbr title="the definition of how data should be formed">schema</abbr> you need to use specific utils and classes provided by Marshmallow.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Use code to define "schemas" that provide data types and validation, automatically.
-
-### <a href="https://webargs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/" target="_blank">Webargs</a>
-
-Another big feature required by APIs is <abbr title="reading and converting to Python data">parsing</abbr> data from incoming requests.
-
-Webargs is a tool that was made to provide that on top of several frameworks, including Flask.
-
-It uses Marshmallow underneath to do the data validation. And it was created by the same developers.
-
-It's a great tool and I have used it a lot too, before having **FastAPI**.
-
-!!! info
-    Webargs was created by the same Marshmallow developers.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Have automatic validation of incoming request data.
-
-### <a href="https://apispec.readthedocs.io/en/stable/" target="_blank">APISpec</a>
-
-Marshmallow and Webargs provide validation, parsing and serialization as plug-ins.
-
-But documentation is still missing. Then APISpec was created.
-
-It is a plug-in for many frameworks (and there's a plug-in for Starlette too).
-
-The way it works is that you write the definition of the schema using YAML format inside the docstring of each function handling a route.
-
-And it generates OpenAPI schemas.
-
-That's how it works in Flask, Starlette, Responder, etc.
-
-But then, we have again the problem of having a micro-syntax, inside of a Python string (a big YAML).
-
-The editor can't help much with that. And if we modify parameters or Marshmallow schemas and forget to also modify that YAML docstring, the generated schema would be obsolete.
-
-!!! info
-    APISpec was created by the same Marshmallow developers.
-
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Support the open standard for APIs, OpenAPI.
-
-### <a href="https://flask-apispec.readthedocs.io/en/latest/" target="_blank">Flask-apispec</a>
-
-It's a Flask plug-in, that ties together Webargs, Marshmallow and APISpec.
-
-It uses the information from Webargs and Marshmallow to automatically generate OpenAPI schemas, using APISpec.
-
-It's a great tool, very under-rated. It should be way more popular than many Flask plug-ins out there. It might be due to its documentation being too concise and abstract.
-
-This solved having to write YAML (another syntax) inside of Python docstrings.
-
-This combination of Flask, Flask-apispec with Marshmallow and Webargs was my favorite backend stack until building **FastAPI**.
-
-Using it led to the creation of several Flask full-stack generators. These are the main stack I (and several external teams) have been using up to now:
-
-* <a href="https://github.com/tiangolo/full-stack" target="_blank">https://github.com/tiangolo/full-stack</a>
-* <a href="https://github.com/tiangolo/full-stack-flask-couchbase" target="_blank">https://github.com/tiangolo/full-stack-flask-couchbase</a>
-* <a href="https://github.com/tiangolo/full-stack-flask-couchdb" target="_blank">https://github.com/tiangolo/full-stack-flask-couchdb</a>
-
-And these same full-stack generators were the base of the <a href="/project-generation/" target="_blank">**FastAPI** project generator</a>.
-
-!!! info
-    Flask-apispec was created by the same Marshmallow developers.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Generate the OpenAPI schema automatically, from the same code that defines serialization and validation.
-
-### <a href="https://nestjs.com/" target="_blank">NestJS</a> (and <a href="https://angular.io/" target="_blank">Angular</a>)
-
-This isn't even Python, NestJS is a JavaScript (TypeScript) NodeJS framework inspired by Angular.
-
-It achieves something somewhat similar to what can be done with Flask-apispec.
-
-It has an integrated dependency injection system, inspired by Angular two. It requires pre-registering the "injectables" (like all the other dependency injection systems I know), so, it adds to the verbosity and code repetition.
-
-As the parameters are described with TypeScript types (similar to Python type hints), editor support is quite good.
-
-But as TypeScript data is not preserved after compilation to JavaScript, it cannot rely on the types to define validation, serialization and documentation at the same time. Due to this and some design decisions, to get validation, serialization and automatic schema generation, it's needed to add decorators in many places. So, it becomes quite verbose.
-
-It can't handle nested models very well. So, if the JSON body in the request is a JSON object that has inner fields that in turn are nested JSON objects, it cannot be properly documented and validated.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Use Python types to have great editor support.
-
-    Have a powerful dependency injection system. Find a way to minimize code repetition.
-
-### <a href="https://sanic.readthedocs.io/en/latest/" target="_blank">Sanic</a>
-
-It was one of the first extremely fast Python frameworks based on `asyncio`. It was made to be very similar to Flask.
-
-!!! note "Technical Details"
-    It used <a href="https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop" target="_blank">`uvloop`</a> instead of the default Python `asyncio` loop. That's what made it so fast.
-
-    It <a href="https://github.com/huge-success/sanic/issues/761" target="_blank">still doesn't implement the ASGI spec for Python asynchronous web development</a>, but it clearly inspired Uvicorn and Starlette, that are currently faster than Sanic in open benchmarks.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Find a way to have a crazy performance.
-    
-    That's why **FastAPI** is based on Starlette, as it is the fastest framework available (tested by third-party benchmarks).
-
-### <a href="https://falconframework.org/" target="_blank">Falcon</a>
-
-Falcon is another high performance Python framework, it is designed to be minimal, and work as the foundation of other frameworks like Hug.
-
-It uses the previous standard for Python web frameworks (WSGI) which is synchronous, so it can't handle WebSockets and other use cases. Nevertheless, it also has a very good performance.
-
-It is designed to have functions that receive two parameters, one "request" and one "response". Then you "read" parts from the request, and "write" parts to the response. Because of this design, it is not possible to declare request parameters and bodies with standard Python type hints as function parameters.
-
-So, data validation, serialization, and documentation, have to be done in code, not automatically. Or they have to be implemented as a framework on top of Falcon, like Hug. This same distinction happens in other frameworks that are inspired by Falcon's design, of having one request object and one response object as parameters.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Find ways to get great performance.
-
-    Along with Hug (as Hug is based on Falcon) inspired **FastAPI** to declare a `response` parameter in functions.
-
-    Although in FastAPI it's optional, and is used mainly to set headers, cookies, and alternative status codes.
-
-### <a href="https://moltenframework.com/" target="_blank">Molten</a>
-
-I discovered Molten in the first stages of building **FastAPI**. And it has quite similar ideas:
-
-* Based on Python type hints.
-* Validation and documentation from these types.
-* Dependency Injection system.
-
-It doesn't use a data validation, serialization and documentation third-party library like Pydantic, it has its own. So, these data type definitions would not be reusable as easily.
-
-It requires a little bit more verbose configurations. And as it is based on WSGI (instead of ASGI), it is not designed to take advantage of the high-performance provided by tools like Uvicorn, Starlette and Sanic.
-
-The dependency injection system requires pre-registration of the dependencies and the dependencies are solved based on the declared types. So, it's not possible to declare more than one "component" that provides a certain type.
-
-Routes are declared in a single place, using functions declared in other places (instead of using decorators that can be placed right on top of the function that handles the endpoint). This is closer to how Django does it than to how Flask (and Starlette) does it. It separates in the code things that are relatively tightly coupled.
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Define extra validations for data types using the "default" value of model attributes. This improves editor support, and it was not available in Pydantic before.
-
-    This actually inspired updating parts of Pydantic, to support the same validation declaration style (all this functionality is now already available in Pydantic).
-
-### <a href="http://www.hug.rest/" target="_blank">Hug</a>
-
-Hug was one of the first frameworks to implement the declaration of API parameter types using Python type hints. This was a great idea that inspired other tools to do the same.
-
-It used custom types in its declarations instead of standard Python types, but it was still a huge step forward.
-
-It also was one of the first frameworks to generate a custom schema declaring the whole API in JSON.
-
-It was not based on a standard like OpenAPI and JSON Schema. So it wouldn't be straightforward to integrate it with other tools, like Swagger UI. But again, it was a very innovative idea.
-
-It has an interesting, uncommon feature: using the same framework, it's possible to create APIs and also CLIs.
-
-As it is based on the previous standard for synchronous Python web frameworks (WSGI), it can't handle Websockets and other things, although it still has high performance too.
-
-!!! info
-    Hug was created by Timothy Crosley, the same creator of <a href="https://github.com/timothycrosley/isort" target="_blank">`isort`</a>, a great tool to automatically sort imports in Python files.
-
-!!! check "Ideas inspired in **FastAPI**"
-    Hug inspired parts of APIStar, and was one of the tools I found most promising, alongside APIStar.
-
-    Hug helped inspiring **FastAPI** to use Python type hints to declare parameters, and to generate a schema defining the API automatically.
-
-    Hug inspired **FastAPI** to declare a `response` parameter in functions to set headers and cookies.
-
-### <a href="https://github.com/encode/apistar" target="_blank">APIStar</a> (<= 0.5)
-
-Right before deciding to build **FastAPI** I found **APIStar** server. It had almost everything I was looking for and had a great design.
-
-It was one of the first implementations of a framework using Python type hints to declare parameters and requests that I ever saw (before NestJS and Molten). I found it more or less at the same time as Hug. But APIStar used the OpenAPI standard.
-
-It had automatic data validation, data serialization and OpenAPI schema generation based on the same type hints in several places.
-
-Body schema definitions didn't use the same Python type hints like Pydantic, it was a bit more similar to Marshmallow, so, editor support wouldn't be as good, but still, APIStar was the best available option.
-
-It had the best performance benchmarks at the time (only surpassed by Starlette).
-
-At first, it didn't have an automatic API documentation web UI, but I knew I could add Swagger UI to it.
-
-It had a dependency injection system. It required pre-registration of components, as other tools discussed above. But still, it was a great feature.
-
-I was never able to use it in a full project, as it didn't have security integration, so, I couldn't replace all the features I was having with the full-stack generators based on Flask-apispec. I had in my backlog of projects to create a pull request adding that functionality.
-
-But then, the project's focus shifted.
-
-It was no longer an API web framework, as the creator needed to focus on Starlette.
-
-Now APIStar is a set of tools to validate OpenAPI specifications, not a web framework.
-
-!!! info
-    APIStar was created by Tom Christie. The same guy that created:
-
-    * Django REST Framework
-    * Starlette (in which **FastAPI** is based)
-    * Uvicorn (used by Starlette and **FastAPI**)
-
-!!! check "Inspired **FastAPI** to"
-    Exist.
-
-    The idea of declaring multiple things (data validation, serialization and documentation) with the same Python types, that at the same time provided great editor support, was something I considered a brilliant idea.
-    
-    And after searching for a long time for a similar framework and testing many different alternatives, APIStar was the best option available.
-
-    Then APIStar stopped to exist as a server and Starlette was created, and was a new better foundation for such a system. That was the final inspiration to build **FastAPI**.
-
-    I consider **FastAPI** a "spiritual successor" to APIStar, while improving and increasing the features, typing system, and other parts, based on the learnings from all these previous tools.
-
-## Used by **FastAPI**
-
-### <a href="https://pydantic-docs.helpmanual.io/" target="_blank">Pydantic</a>
-
-Pydantic is a library to define data validation, serialization and documentation (using JSON Schema) based on Python type hints.
-
-That makes it extremely intuitive.
-
-It is comparable to Marshmallow. Although it's faster than Marshmallow in benchmarks. And as it is based on the same Python type hints, the editor support is great.
-
-!!! check "**FastAPI** uses it to"
-    Handle all the data validation, data serialization and automatic model documentation (based on JSON Schema).
-
-    **FastAPI** then takes that JSON Schema data and puts it in OpenAPI, apart from all the other things it does.
-
-### <a href="https://www.starlette.io/" target="_blank">Starlette</a>
-
-Starlette is a lightweight <abbr title="The new standard for building asynchronous Python web">ASGI</abbr> framework/toolkit, which is ideal for building high-performance asyncio services.
-
-It is very simple and intuitive. It's designed to be easily extensible, and have modular components.
-
-It has:
-
-* Seriously impressive performance.
-* WebSocket support.
-* GraphQL support.
-* In-process background tasks.
-* Startup and shutdown events.
-* Test client built on requests.
-* CORS, GZip, Static Files, Streaming responses.
-* Session and Cookie support.
-* 100% test coverage.
-* 100% type annotated codebase.
-* Zero hard dependencies.
-
-Starlette is currently the fastest Python framework tested. Only surpassed by Uvicorn, which is not a framework, but a server.
-
-Starlette provides all the basic web microframework functionality.
-
-But it doesn't provide automatic data validation, serialization or documentation.
-
-That's one of the main things that **FastAPI** adds on top, all based on Python type hints (using Pydantic). That, plus the dependency injection system, security utilities, OpenAPI schema generation, etc.
-
-!!! note "Technical Details"
-    ASGI is a new "standard" being developed by Django core team members. It is still not a "Python standard" (a PEP), although they are in the process of doing that.
-
-    Nevertheless, it is already being used as a "standard" by several tools. This greatly improves interoperability, as you could switch Uvicorn for any other ASGI server (like Daphne or Hypercorn), or you could add ASGI compatible tools, like `python-socketio`.
-
-!!! check "**FastAPI** uses it to"
-    Handle all the core web parts. Adding features on top.
-
-    The class `FastAPI` itself inherits directly from the class `Starlette`.
-    
-    So, anything that you can do with Starlette, you can do it directly with **FastAPI**, as it is basically Starlette on steroids.
-
-### <a href="https://www.uvicorn.org/" target="_blank">Uvicorn</a>
-
-Uvicorn is a lightning-fast ASGI server, built on uvloop and httptools.
-
-It is not a web framework, but a server. For example, it doesn't provide tools for routing by paths. That's something that a framework like Starlette (or **FastAPI**) would provide on top.
-
-It is the recommended server for Starlette and **FastAPI**.
-
-!!! check "**FastAPI** recommends it as"
-    The main web server to run **FastAPI** applications.
-
-    You can combine it with Gunicorn, to have an asynchronous multi-process server.
-
-    Check more details in the <a href="/deployment/" target="_blank">Deployment</a> section.
-
-## Benchmarks and speed
-
-To understand, compare, and see the difference between Uvicorn, Starlette and FastAPI, check the section about [Benchmarks](/benchmarks/). -->
\ No newline at end of file
+It uses the same design and usage of FastAPI as much as possible. So, if you have used FastAPI, you know how to use Typer.